Intergenerational Trauma in Vietnamese Americans
By Caitlin Dang, LMHCA, MACP
Intergenerational trauma is a growing area of interest in mental health, yet much of the research lacks nuance when applied to Asian American communities. Too often, studies group all Asian ethnicities together, overlooking the deep cultural, historical, and migration differences between groups. This lack of specificity not only erases important distinctions—it also limits the effectiveness of treatment.
As a therapist who works extensively with Asian American clients, particularly those navigating intergenerational trauma, I want to shed light on one especially underrepresented group: Vietnamese Americans. This blog post summarizes key findings from a larger literature review and explores how trauma gets passed down across generations, the mental health impacts, and the implications for healing and culturally competent care.
Why Vietnamese Americans?
Vietnamese Americans have a migration history unlike many other Asian American groups. Most arrived in the United States as refugees after the Vietnam War, bearing the scars of conflict, forced displacement, and political persecution. Many faced trauma before (pre-migration), during (peri-migration), and after migration (post-migration)—a framework known as the triple trauma paradigm.
This distinct history affects how trauma is experienced and passed down through generations. Yet, the mental health field has only begun to explore these complex dynamics.
How Trauma Is Transmitted Across Generations
Intergenerational trauma in Vietnamese families often shows up in patterns of insecure attachment, controlling or emotionally unavailable parenting, diminished family communication, and an accumulation of stressors. Studies have also shown that:
The acculturation gap between parents and children often fuels intergenerational cultural conflict.
Differences in how generations adapt to U.S. culture can lead to misunderstandings and mental health struggles.
Parenting styles shaped by trauma—such as high control and low responsiveness—can inadvertently perpetuate distress in children.
Children may grow up internalizing their parents’ unspoken pain, coping with both cultural dissonance and inherited emotional wounds.
Acculturation and Identity Conflict
Many Vietnamese American youth struggle to navigate both American cultural norms and traditional Vietnamese values. When these two cultural identities are seen as conflicting, anxiety, self-doubt, and shame can result.
The theory of bicultural identity integration (BII) suggests that individuals who perceive their cultures as harmonious experience better mental health than those who see them as in conflict. Unfortunately, for many second-generation Vietnamese Americans, this harmony is difficult to achieve when faced with generational gaps, language barriers, and different understandings of identity and success.
The Role of Racism and Discrimination
Racism further complicates intergenerational trauma. Second-generation Vietnamese Americans often report greater psychological distress than their first-generation counterparts. One reason may be that they are more attuned to U.S. racial dynamics, and experience discrimination more acutely, without the same cultural buffers their parents might have.
What the Research Misses
Much of the existing research on Asian Americans compares them to white populations and highlights negative mental health outcomes. This approach has serious limitations:
It overlooks cultural strengths and resilience.
It underrepresents specific ethnic groups, including Vietnamese Americans.
It often fails to account for important variables like pre- and post-migration trauma, war exposure, and family systems.
We need more culturally grounded studies, longer-term research, and qualitative data that center Asian philosophies, values, and lived experiences.
Toward Healing and Culturally Competent Care
Therapists must go beyond surface-level cultural competency. Effective care requires:
Recognizing the unique history of each Asian ethnic group.
Understanding the impact of war, forced migration, and systemic racism.
Supporting clients in exploring both inherited pain and cultural strengths.
This means holding space for mourning and healing from loss, while also celebrating the resilience and values that helped families survive displacement and rebuild.
Final Thoughts
There is still so much to learn about intergenerational trauma in Vietnamese American communities. But what we do know points to the urgent need for more specific, compassionate, and culturally attuned mental health support. We need to move beyond one-size-fits-all approaches and start truly listening to the distinct stories within the broader Asian American experience.
If you or someone you know is navigating the effects of intergenerational trauma, you're not alone. Therapy can offer a space to process, understand, and begin to heal.
Interested in therapy or consultation? I offer trauma-informed and culturally responsive counseling for clients in Washington State and coaching nationally.
Full Research Paper
When considering intergenerational trauma of Asian Americans, studies often fail to consider the cultural differences between different ethnicities. By failing to differentiate how different ethnicities are impacted by generational trauma, practitioners are unable to effectively treat their clients. It is necessary to acknowledge how different groups of Asians have vastly different cultural norms, practices, and beliefs that impact future generations in America and their acculturation and assimilation. I will be researching the intergenerational trauma of Asian Americans with a primary focus on Vietnamese Americans. This literature review will examine how intergenerational trauma is transferred from generation to generation in Asian Americans, the results of intergenerational trauma on mental health, and how intergenerational trauma impacts, specifically, Vietnamese Americans. The Vietnamese American community is especially unique to other Asian American communities as most of them immigrated to the States due to the Vietnam War. Vietnamese Americans are burdened with the trauma of all the intricacies of war, being both refugees and immigrants, and making a life in a new country and all that entails. This literature review surfaces the issue of Vietnamese Americans not being able to be provided adequate care due to the lack of research on the psychological impacts of war, immigration, and being Asian in America.
Intergenerational Trauma of Asian Americans
When assessing intergenerational conflict, mental health outcomes of both the parents and offspring are at the forefront of research. Intergenerational trauma of Americans looks different for various ethnicities due to discrepancies in migration history, history of racism, and cultural values. When looking at intergenerational trauma of American families, researchers must consider ethnicity, the context of the trauma, acculturation levels, and familial and cultural values and how all of these factors impact intergenerational trauma and mental health outcomes.
Intergenerational Trauma & Mental Health Outcomes
Looking broadly at the research of intergenerational trauma on Asian Americans can give providers insight into what plays a role in creating trauma, how that trauma impacts an individual in the long-term, how that is transferred to the offspring, and the implications of intergenerational trauma. The research study by Flanagan et al. (2020) sought to examine the mechanisms by which intergenerational trauma of parents who have directly experienced war related trauma has impacted their children who had no direct trauma exposure, which they found to be true. The findings of this study suggests that the trauma from parent to child may be transferred by mechanisms of “insecure attachment; maladaptive parenting styles; diminished parental emotional availability; decreased family functioning; accumulation of family stressors; dysfunctional intra-family communication styles and severity of parental symptomatology” (Flanagan et al., 2020, p. 1). Unlike most research studies, this study considers each step in the migration process, pre-, peri-, and post-, also called the triple trauma paradigm (Flanagan et al., 2020, p. 2). This study, however, does not assess the impact of each level of the triple trauma paradigm which may have different impacts on trauma being passed down.
In addition to migration impacting intergenerational trauma, a main point of concern in Asian American mental health has been related to acculturation and their ability to adapt to mainstream culture while still having positive regard to their ethnicity. While the study conducted by Lui and Rollock (2019) does not assess the impact of trauma on mental health, it does assess the correlation between levels of acculturation and intergenerational trauma in Asian American college students. The process of acculturation varies across different generations and has resulted in discourse between generations of migrant Asian families. This is because “Asian Americans may be challenged to adhere to customs, values, and identities congruent with the mainstream host culture (i.e., acculturation orientation), and to those congruent with their Asian heritage culture (i.e., enculturation orientation” (Lui & Rollock, 2019, p. 34). When considering the impact of acculturation on intergenerational cultural conflict, which is defined as “parent– offspring disagreements and arguments about issues that stem from discrepancies in their acculturation orientations or speeds to acculturate or enculturate,” the acculturation-gap theory arised (Lui & Rollock, 2019, p. 34). This theory “postulates that discrepancies in the speed, timing, content, or other aspects of acculturation between generations can predict offspring’s mental health problems both directly and indirectly” (Lui & Rollock, 2019, p. 34). These theories and findings connect the interconnectedness of intergenerational trauma, intergenerational cultural conflict, and degree of acculturation by generation. While this study has contributed to the conversation of intergenerational trauma in Asian Americans, future research should include “whether and how ethnic identification influences intergenerational cultural conflict and offspring’s mental health” (Lui & Rollock, 2019, p. 44).
To continue the conversation on mental health in Asian Americans, the study by Lee and Church (2017) used the Five Factor Model of personality (FFM), cultural factors of acculturation, enculturation, and bicultural identity integration (BII) to create a model to predict social anxiety in Asian Americans. Those who scored high on Extraversion were found to be less likely to develop social anxiety due to their ability to acculturate with their peers, assimilate to social norms, develop social skills, and overall feel more confident around their peers (Lee & Church, 2017, p. 112). With slightly higher results of being an indicator for anxiety, those high in Neuroticism were more likely to view their two cultures in conflict, leading to the increase in anxiety. Of BII-Conflict, BII-Distance, acculturation, and enculturation, BII-Conflict had the highest indication of developing social anxiety and second was acculturation. It was also found that “acculturation, more than enculturation, showed some ability to serve as a protective factor against social anxiety” (Lee & Church, 2017, p. 111). When an individual is struggling with identity and role confusion is likely to develop greater levels of anxiety if their perception of the two cultures they reside in are in conflict.
Similarly to the study by Lee and Church (2017), the study by Leong, Yee, and Church (2022) assesses how the integration of cultural validity and cultural specificity will advance the field of Asian American psychology. In their study, “the cultural validity of Western models suggest a particular pattern of personality styles among Asian Americans. This cluster represented by perfectionism, psychological inflexibility, and rumination points to an obsessional personality style that may be a common syndrome among Asian Americans that is worth further exploration” (Leong, Yee, & Chang, 2022, p. 14). This is significant in the conversation of intergenerational trauma as cultural beliefs, traits, and values may play a role in acculturation, and thus mental health as supported by both of the studies by both Lui and Rollock (2019) and Lee and Church (2017). This study is more of a qualitative study that looks at multiple studies and synthesizes them to bring awareness to the facilitating more studies on Asian Americans.
Tummala-Narra (2001), too, addresses common struggles faced by Asian Americans such as, effects of migration, values of separation versus interdependence, identity conflict, cultural variations in trauma-related anxiety, and treatment expectations. Continuing with the themes of migration, acculturation, and impact of migration on intergenerational trauma, Tummala-Nara states, “Migration further evokes various types of anxiety, such as separation anxiety, superego anxieties about loyalties and values, persecutory anxiety when a person is faced with the new and the unknown, depressive anxiety which give rise to mourning for objects left behind, and confusional anxiety resulting in difficulties of discriminating between the old and the new” (Tummala-Narra, 2001). This means that existing mental health disorders caused by migration can impact acculturation, supported by Flanagan et al. (2020), and discrepancy in acculturation between parents and offspring has been linked to intergenerational trauma, supported by Lui and Rollock (2019). Unlike the other research studies, Tummala-Narra proposes potential modalities of treatment for Asian Americans and acknowledges the potential barriers that may prevent healing.
Overall, the research on Asian Americans is skim and within the research studies that exist, there is a lack of consideration for the various sub-ethnicities of Asian Americans, who Asian Americans are being researched with/compared to, and how they are being acquired for the studies (Flanagan et al., 2020; Leong, Yee, & Chang, 2022; Lui & Rollock, 2019). Many of the studies have been short and the long term, multigenerational impacts of migration of Asian Americans is still being studied due to the relatively recent migrations. Additionally, another point of relevance for researchers to consider is to “consider using assessments in the study of Asian Americans that are less dependent on studies of non-Asians and are more informed by studies of Asian philosophies, traditions, and histories (as they intersect with the complexities of living in modern America) to potentially build a more informed Asian American psychology from the ground up.” (Leong, Yee, & Chang, 2022, p. 16). Nearly all of the studies compare Asian Americans to white Americans and focus on the negative outcomes, preventing culturally competent care. While we are assessing trauma in Asian Americans, studies must be done to find what is working and how can Asian Americans use their cultural values to move towards healing.
Intergenerational Trauma in Vietnamese Americans
Now that we have examined the ways in which intergenerational trauma can be passed down and the potential contributing factors of Asian Americans, we can hone in on intergenerational trauma of Vietnamese Americans which slightly differs from other Asian ethnicities due to variance in migration patterns, reason for migration, and other relevant factors. The study by Birman and Tran (2008) “examine[d] how pre- and post migration factors affect the psychological distress and adjustment for a community sample of Vietnamese refugees resettled in the United States” (Birman & Tran, 2008, p. 109). The study found that even within the subcategory of Vietnamese Asian Americans, the experience of this group is not the same across the board leaving much to be researched on how different experiences of war may contribute to intergenerational trauma (Birman & Tran, 2008, p. 109). Birman and Tran had a particular interest in how political ex-detainees had a higher rate of PTSD and wanted to know how that related to the passing of intergenerational trauma. There have been very few studies that have “considered the impact of traumatic history alongside other factors such as acculturation and social support in one study” and as indicated in Flanagan et al. (2020), Leong, Yee, and Chang (2022), and Lui & Rollock (2019), how one acculturates is directly correlated with intergenerational trauma (Birman & Tran, 2008, p. 109-110). In fact, this is the first study on Vietnamese Americans that includes acculturation, social support, and history of trauma while including pre- and post-migration trauma.
The study by Nguyen et al., too, studied the relationship between perceived acculturation conflict and mental health symptoms while looking at the parent-adolescent strain and parental psychological control. This research differs in research focus than the other ones mentioned as it discusses the direct relationship between parent and adolescent. The study found that “maternal psychological control, parental unresponsiveness, and unmet parent expectations mediated the association between internalizing symptoms and later acculturation conflict” (Nguyen et al., 2018, p. 151). Similarly to the research by Lui and Rollock (2019), the acculturation gap-distress hypothesis arises, however in this study, it has been found that strained parent-child relationships are often the result of acculturation differences, reinforcing how acculturation plays a role in intergenerational trauma (Nguyen et al., 2018, p. 152). Specifically in Vietnamese Americans, “parents may misinterpret adolescent symptoms of withdrawal, irritability, or dysphoria as a show of disrespect or a lack of interest in the family. Parents may consequently respond by rebuking or criticizing the youngster, thereby invalidating the adolescent’s distress,” continuing the intergenerational trauma (Nguyen et al., 2018, p. 159).
In addition to acculturation being an influencing factor on intergenerational trauma, Vietnamese Americans amongst other Asian American groups are impacted by racism in various degrees based on generation. The study by Yu et al. “tested the direct and indirect effects of racial/ethnic discrimination on behavioral and emotional problems via private and public regard and whether associations differed for first- versus second-generation youth” (Yu et al., 2022, p. 1). When looking at this, it is important to consider what plays a role in the perception of perceived racism by assessing how a person values their own ethnic group, as well as how they view others outside of their ethnic/racial group (Yu et al., 2022, p. 2). It was found that “first-generation immigrants may be less attuned to societal racial hierarchies that disadvantage minoritized groups than U.S.-born youth, thereby potentially reducing the mental health effects of discrimination on this group,” meaning second-generation Vietnamese Americans are at a greater risk for poor mental health outcomes as a result of racism (Yu et al., 2022, p. 3).
Conclusion
Multicultural competent care requires the therapist to have some degree of understanding of various cultures as well as awareness of personal biases and this can be accomplished by, first, acknowledging that different Asian ethnicities will face different issues, second, exploring those different issues and how they may manifest in their clients, and third, maintaining a welcoming environment that promotes empathy and compassion for the client in whatever stage of healing they are in. The included data in this literature review is significant because much of it contradicts previous research done on other groups of people (Nguyen et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2022). This goes to show that additional research must be done on those who have experienced war, trauma, and migration as the research indicates these factors influence intergenerational trauma (Birman & Tran, 2008; Flanagan et al., 2020; Tummala-Narra, 2001). In addition, there needs to be long term studies done with greater population samples on the effects of acculturation and racism on Vietnamese Americans. Based on the current research, further questions arise of how do Vietnamese cultural ideals impact assimilation and acculturation based on their migration experiences, how does the trauma of war impact multiple generations, what allows Vietnamese Americans to thrive in American society, and what are the ways in which Vietnamese Americans can be supported to improve mental health while still maintaining cultural values and beliefs to decrease further internal conflict? There is still much to be discovered about the impact of intergenerational trauma on Asian Americans, especially Vietnamese Americans, due to the lack of funding, sample sizes, and research bias, however, it is crucial to explore to improve well-being of Vietnamese Americans who have been impacted by intergenerational trauma.
Sources
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Flanagan, N., Travers, A., Vallières, F., Hansen, M., Halpin, R., Sheaf, G., Rottmann, N., & Johnsen, A. T. (2020). Crossing borders: A systematic review identifying potential mechanisms of intergenerational trauma transmission in asylum-seeking and refugee families. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1790283
Lee, J. H., & Church, A. T. (2017). Social anxiety in Asian Americans: Integrating personality and cultural factors. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000066
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Yu, S. H., Saephan, A., Weiss, B., Shih, J. H., Tsai, W., Kim, J. H. J., & Lau, A. S. (2022). How discrimination experiences relate to racial/ethnic identity and mental health across first- and second-generation Vietnamese American adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology.https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000565
